Islam in Cambodia
By : Drs. Agus Subandi, MBA
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Islam is the religion of a majority of the Cham (also called Khmer Islam) and Malay minorities in Cambodia. According to Po Dharma, there were 150,000 to 200,000 Muslims in Cambodia as late as 1975. Persecution under the Khmer Rouge eroded their numbers, however, and by the late 1980s they probably had not regained their former strength. In 2009, the Pew Research Center estimated that 1.6% of the population, or 236,000 people were Muslims.[1]All of the Cham Muslims are Sunnis[citation needed] of the Shafi'i school[citation needed]. There is also a growing Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in Cambodia.[2] Po Dharma divides the Muslim Cham in Cambodia into a traditionalist branch and an orthodox branch.
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Background of Early Islam
The Cham Muslims trace their ancestry to one of the father-in-laws of Prophet Muhammad,[3] who is Jahsh, the father of Zainab (one of the wives of Prophet Muhammad).[4] It was in the wake of many Sahabas who arrived in Indo-Chin in 617-18 from Abyssinia by sea route.[5]
Community Life
The Cham have their own mosques. In 1962 there were about 100 mosques in the country. At the end of the nineteenth century, the Muslims in Cambodia formed a unified community under the authority of four religious dignitaries—mupti, tuk kalih, raja kalik, and tvan pake. A council of notables in Cham villages consisted of one hakem and several katip, bilal, and labi. The four high dignitaries and the hakem were exempt from personal taxes, and they were invited to take part in major national ceremonies at the royal court. When Cambodia became independent, the Islamic community was placed under the control of a five-member council that represented the community in official functions and in contacts with other Islamic communities. Each Muslim community has a hakem who leads the community and the mosque, an imam who leads the prayers, and a bilal who calls the faithful to the daily prayers. The peninsula of Chrouy Changvar near Phnom Penh is considered the spiritual center of the Cham, and several high Muslim officials reside there. Each year some of the Cham go to study the Qur'an at Kelantanin Malaysia, and some go on to study in, or make a pilgrimage to, Mecca. According to figures from the late 1950s, about 7 percent of the Cham had completed the pilgrimage and could wear the fez or turban as a sign of their accomplishment.
The traditional Cham retain many ancient Muslim or pre-Muslim traditions and rites. They consider Allah as the all-powerful God, but they also recognize other non-Islamic practices. They are closer, in many respects, to the Cham of coastal Vietnam than they are to other Muslims. The religious dignitaries of the traditional Cham (and of the Cham in Vietnam) dress completely in white, and they shave their heads and faces. These Cham believe in the power of magic and sorcery, and they attach great importance to magical practices in order to avoid sickness or slow or violent death. They believe in many supernatural powers. Although they show little interest in the pilgrimage to Mecca and in the five daily prayers, the traditional Cham do celebrate many Muslim festivals and rituals.
The orthodox Cham have adopted a more conformist religion largely because of their close contacts with, and intermarriages with, theMalay community. In fact, the orthodox Cham have adopted Malay customs and family organization, and many speak the Malay language. They send pilgrims to Mecca, and they attend international Islamic conferences. Conflicts between the traditional and the orthodox Cham increased between 1954 and 1975. For example, the two groups polarized the population of one village, and each group eventually had its own mosque and separate religious organization.
Persecution
Further information: Persecution of Muslims
According to Cham sources, 132 mosques were destroyed during the Khmer Rouge era, many others were desecrated, and Muslims were not allowed to worship. Later, since the Vietnamese-installed PRK regime, Islam has been given the same freedom as Buddhism. Vickery believes that about 185,000 Cham lived in Cambodia in the mid-1980s and that the number of mosques was about the same then as it was before 1975. In early 1988, there were six mosques in the Phnom Penh area and a "good number" in the provinces, but Muslim dignitaries were thinly stretched; only 20 of the previous 113 most prominent Cham clergy in Cambodia survived the Khmer Rouge period.
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§ Utsuls
References
1. ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009) (PDF), Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, Pew Research Center, p. 31, retrieved 2009-10-08
4. ^ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangal accessed on 27 Nov.2010; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%60d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas ,accessed on 27 Nov.2010;en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_China accessed on 27 Nov.2010.
§ 
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.§ De Féo, Agnès (2005). "Le royaume bouddhique face au renouveau islamique". Cahiers de l'Orient n°78, Paris.
§ De Féo, Agnès (2005). "Les Chams Sot, dissidence de l'islam cambodgien". Cahiers de l'Orient n°78, Paris.
Islam in Bhutan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
According to adherents.com Muslims constitute over 5% of the population [1] However the CIA factbookclaims that Muslims are less than 1% in Bhutan. [2] In 2009, the Pew Research Center estimated that 1% of the population, or 7,000 people, were Muslim.[3]
See also
References
3. ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009) (PDF), Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, Pew Research Center, p. 31, retrieved 2009-10-08
4. ^ Khalifatul Masih V's speech in the Second Session of the Second Day of the International Jalsa Salana UK 2008
Freedom of religion in Bhutan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Bhutanese Constitution of 2008 and previous law provide for freedom of religion in Bhutan, however the government has limited non-Buddhist missionary activity, barring non-Buddhist missionaries from entering the country, limiting construction of non-Buddhist religious buildings, and restricting the celebration of some non-Buddhist religious festivals. Drukpa Kagyu (Mahayana) Buddhism is the state religion, although in the southern areas many citizens openly practice Hinduism.
Through 2007, there were no reports of violence associated with pressure to conform to Mahayana beliefs. Nor were there reports of societal abuse or discrimination based on religious belief or practice. While there were no reports of the repetition of the conformist excesses of the late 1980s and early 1990s, societal and governmental pressure for conformity with Drukpa Kagyupa norms was prevalent.[1]
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Religious demography
Main article: Religion in Bhutan
Approximately two-thirds to three-quarters of the population practice Drukpa Kagyu or Nyingma Buddhism, both of which are disciplines ofMahayana Buddhism. Approximately one-quarter of the population are ethnic Nepalese and practice Hinduism. They live mainly in the south and follow the Shaivite, Vaishnavite, Shakta, Ghanapathi, Puranic, and Vedic schools. Christians both Roman Catholic and Protestant and nonreligious groups comprised less than one percent of the population. Bön, the country's animist and shamanistic belief system, revolves around the worship of nature and predates Buddhism. Very few citizens adhere exclusively to this religious group.[1]
Legal framework
The most authoritative law regarding religious freedom in Bhutan is its Constitution. Other ancillary acts of Bhutanese legislation provide the substantive and procedural framework to ensure religious freedom and regulate religious bodies. Religious freedom in Bhutan is shaped by the evolving laws and policies of the Bhutanese government regarding discrimination, organizations, national security and social order, andfamily law. Although Bhutan’s National Assembly had banned open practice of non-Buddhist and non-Hindu religions by passing resolutions in 1969 and in 1979, the current legal framework on its face unequivocally provides religious freedom for all.[2][3]
Constitution
The Constitution of 2008 affirms the Drukpa Kagyu sect as the state religion, though it designates the King of Bhutan as the protector of all religions in Butan.[2][nb 1] Religious institutions and personalities have a duty "to promote the spiritual heritage of the country while also ensuring that religion remains separate from politics" and that religious institutions and personalities remain "above politics."[2][nb 2] The Constitution guarantees every Bhutanese citizen "the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. No person shall be compelled to belong to another faith by means of coercion or inducement."[2][nb 3] It further provides "[a]ll persons are equal before the law and are entitled to equal and effective protection of the law and shall not be discriminated against on the grounds of race, sex, language, religion, politics or other status."[2][nb 4] The Constitution further prohibits political parties or activities based on religion.[2][nb 5]
The constitutional clause regarding "coercion or inducement" has been interpreted by a district court to prohibit not only forced conversionbut also proselytism in the case of a Christian missionary pastor who used a generator and a projector.[4]
Chhoedey Lhentshog
The Religious Organizations Act of 2007 aims to protect and preserve the spiritual heritage of Bhutan through providing for the registration and administration of religious organizations.[5][nb 6] To meet those goals, the Act creates the Chhoedey Lhentshog as the regulatory authority on religious organizations.[5][nb 7] This body is composed of eight persons, six of whom have decision making power: a Cabinet Minister appointed by the Prime Minister as the chairperson; the Tshugla Lopon of the Gedun Dratshang, an ex-officio member; one eminent member of the National Council; one eminent Trulku, Khenpo, or Lam nominated by the Lams of the Nyingma Chhoedey; one eminent Anim nominated by Heads of Anim Chhoedey; one eminent Pandit nominated by the Pandits of Hindu Dharmic Samudai; a senior official from the Ministry of Finance appointed by the Finance Minister; and the Director of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, an ex-officio member secretary.[5][nb 8] The Chhoedey Lhentshog is tasked with managing, monitoring, and regulating all religious organizations except the Gedun Dratshang (overseen by the monastic authority); with promoting the principles and values of peace, non-violence, compassion and tolerance; and with creating conditions that will enable "the true and sustainable development of a good and compassionate society rooted in Buddhist ethos."[5][nb 9] Religious organizations, in turn, must be transparent and accountable, and "respect indigenous knowledge and customs, individuals’ dignity, identity, culture and values."[5][nb 10]
The Religious Organizations Act requires each religious organization to register with the Chhoedey Lhentshog, which in turn issues a certificate of registration if the applicant organization meets the requirements of the Act. The registrant must hold Bhutanese citizenshipand disclose his assets, educational qualifications, and any criminal convictions. In the vent of a denial, the Act provides for appeal to thecourts.[5][nb 11]
When a group receives recognition through registration, a group still requires permission from local authorities to hold public meetings. Receiving foreign aid or inviting foreign speakers is subject to special permission from the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.[3]Otherwise, registered organizations enjoy exemption from taxes and a series rights and duties incident to corporate personhood. Organizations must, among other duties, report assets, contributions, expenditures, and liabilities to the Chhoedey Lhentshog, which maintains public records.[5][nb 12] The Religious Organizations Act also outlines specific requirements for organizations' internal workings, providing a framework analogous to codes in other countries for nonprofit or religious corporations. For all religious organizations, the Act specifies corporate structure; bylaw requirements; meeting and quorum rules; corporate liabilities; fundraising and collection rules; merger; and dissolution and disposal of assets.[5][nb 13] The Act further codifies the elements of six offenses specifically in relation to religious organizations and their members: false statements; false or misleading information; breach of trust; misuse of investment; unlawful collection; and illegal fundraising. Illegal fundraising is defined as a petty misdemeanor resulting in a fine or suspension or cancellation of registration. All other crimes are delegated to the Penal Code for definition.
By March 2009, no religious organizations had actually been registered, and the Chhoedey Lhentshog had just had its first meeting.[6] In September 2010, the Chhoedey Lhentshog published a list of fourteen categories of religious personalities, including gomchens, anims,trulkus, khenpos, latruels, pujariyas, and pandits, who were prohibited from participating in secular elections; the common element among the categories was the receipt of monetary assistance from the government. Some such persons serve as civil servants, however.[7] By November 2010, the Chhoedey Lhentshog was committed to discussing how a Christian organization could be registered to represent its community at its next semiannual meeting.[5][nb 14][3] After this statement but ahead of any results, the government was seen by as likely to register only one Christian organization and to expect it to represent all Christians in Bhutan, calling for Christian unity. Similarly, Hindus, constituting around 22 percent of the population, were also represented by a single legal entity, the Hindu Dharma Samudaya (Hindu Religion Community) of Bhutan.[3]
Other laws on religion
Law enforcement also reflects the policy of the government toward freedom of religion, particularly toward the protection of individuals' religious identities. The National Security Act prohibits "words either spoken or written, or by other means whatsoever, that promote or attempt to promote, on grounds of religion, race, language, caste or community, or on any other ground whatsoever, feelings of enmity or hatred between different religious, racial or language groups or castes and communities." Violating the NSA is punishable with up to 3 years' imprisonment although it is not clear that the government has enforced this provision of the act.[1][8] As of November 2010, parliamentwas reportedly in the process of revising the Penal Code to include conversions "by force or allurement."[3]
The Marriage Act of 1980, as amended in 1996, addresses questions of family law subjects such as marriage, divorce, adoption, and child custody. Traditionally, Buddhists and Hindus have resolved questions of family law according to their religion; however, this is changing as the country takes steps to strengthen its legal system. The country's evolving legal system is based on customary law and Buddhist precepts.[1][9]
Status of religious freedom
Through 2007, the law provided for freedom of religion; however, the Government limited this right in practice. Mahayana Buddhism is thestate religion. The Government discouraged both large and small religious gatherings of non-Buddhists, did not allow construction of non-Buddhist places of worship, and did not allow non-Buddhist missionaries to work in the country. No new buildings, including new places of worship, could be constructed without licenses. While previous law did not restrict the right to convert or proselytize, proselytism was prohibited based on a Royal Government decision. There were, however, no laws against publishing religious material.[1]
An annual government grant finances the country's monastic body of 3,500 monks. The Government committed to providing this support as a result of the 1956 land reform program, which stripped the monastic establishment of wide tracts of fertile land for redistribution among the landless. As of 2007, 10 seats in the 150-seat National Assembly and 2 seats on the 11-member Royal Advisory Council were reserved for Buddhist monks by statute and out of respect for the country's tradition of Buddhist spiritual oversight. There are no religious stipulations on the remaining seats. Many non-Buddhists have worked for the Government. In 2007, the Special Commission for Cultural Affairs, with a Hindu priest as a member, also advised on religious matters. Major Buddhist holy days are state holidays. The King declared one major Hindu festival as a national holiday, and the royal family participated in it.[1]
As of 2007, NGO representatives living outside the country and dissidents reported to U.S. State Department sources that only Drukpa Kagyu and Nyingma Buddhist religious teaching was permitted in schools, and that Buddhist prayer was compulsory in all government run schools. The Government contended that there was no religious curriculum in modern educational institutions in the country. Buddhist teaching was permitted only in monastic schools; religious teaching was forbidden in other schools. Local NGO interlocutors confirmed that although students took part in a prayer session each morning, it was nondenominational and not compulsory.[1]
The Government requires all citizens to conform to driglam namzha, namely by wearing the traditional Ngalop dress in public places; however, the government only strictly enforced this law for visits to Buddhist religious buildings, monasteries, government offices, schools, and for attendance at official functions and public ceremonies. Some citizens commented that enforcement of this law was arbitrary and sporadic.[1]
Restrictions on religious freedom
Followers of religious groups other than Buddhism and Hinduism generally were free to worship in private homes, but NGOs alleged that they were prohibited from erecting religious buildings or congregating in public. Some Christian groups reported that religious meetings must be held discreetly, especially in rural areas, for fear of the authorities. In 2007, the U.S. State Department mentioned one reported building used for Christian worship in the south. Through 2007, no new buildings, including places of worship, could be constructed without government licenses. Reports by ethnic Nepalese citizens suggested that this process favored Buddhist temples over Hindu temples. The government provided financial assistance for the construction of Buddhist temples and shrines and state funding for monks and monasteries. NGOs alleged that the government rarely granted permission to build Hindu temples; the last report of such construction was in the early 1990s, when the government authorized the construction and renovation of Hindu temples and centers of Sanskrit and Hindu learning and provided state funds to help finance the projects. The government argued that it was a matter of supply and demand, with demand for Buddhist temples far exceeding that for Hindu temples. The Government stated that it supported numerous Hindu temples in the south, where most Hindus reside, and provided some scholarships for Hindus to study Sanskrit in India.[1]
Certain senior civil servants, regardless of religion, are required to take an oath of allegiance to the king, the country, and the people.[2][nb 15] The oath does not have religious content, but a Buddhist lama administers it. Dissidents alleged that applicants have been asked their religion before receiving government services. In 2007, there were no reports of promotion denials to some of the handful of Christians in government service, however there had been such reports in the past.[1]
In January 2006 authorities arrested two civil servants in the village of Nago in Paro District, accusing them of engaging in acts of proselytism under the false pretext of holding an official meeting, maligning the Spiritual Head of Bhutan, posing as officials on official business, and giving false information. In accordance with provisions in the Penal Code and the National Security Act, both men were found guilty in a district court. Christian groups maintained the men were arrested due to their religious beliefs since, according to these groups, the men were arrested while showing a Christian film in a Buddhist home. They were sentenced in early June 2006 in an open trial with a public hearing to three and a half years and three years in prison. They did not appeal the court judgment, although the right to appeal was provided for by law. On July 28, 2006, both men were released after payment of a fine.[1]
See also
Notes
References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Bhutan: International Religious Freedom Report 2007". United States Department of State. 2007. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
2. ^ a b c d e f g "The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2008-07-18. Retrieved 2010-10-08.
3. ^ a b c d e "Legal Status Foreseen for Christianity in Buddhist Bhutan". Compass Direct News online. Compass Direct. 2010-11-04. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
4. ^ "Pastor sentenced to 3 yrs in prison". Bhutan News Service online. Bhutan News Service. 2010-12-12. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
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